Black Music in a Slave State

MUSIC HISTORY OF 19th CENTURY

NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA.

Before Storyville

By Professor Arthur R. LaBrew

P R E F A C E      The history of Afro-American musics in nineteenth century New Orleans, Louisiana, because of obvious reasons developed in this outline, must be extended back a century earlier. During that period, Louisiana had been occupied by different nationalities – the French (until 1768) and the Spanish (until 1803) – whose customs and mores directed and affected newly arrived Africans and their descendants. United States occupation began in the nineteenth century and consequently represents a third stage of growth. Historical tracings during each period have failed to present conclusive information about the origins of Créole/black/slave musicians and likewise failed to keep a continuous thread about their musics.

       The almost total neglect in historically studying the music of these musicians in New Orleans was pointed out by Leonard Ballou (Tones and Overtones, 1953). Having recognized that only cursory and limited information had been put forth about musicians who received training in Europe, a lecture was prepared at the suggestion of Robert M. Stevenson (UCLA) for the 1974 Latin American session of the American Musicological Society, held in Washington, D.C. titled Black Musicians of and in the New World: The Exodus to Europe. It that report new data on Ignatius Sancho (1729-1780), George Augustus Polgreen Bridgetower (1778-1860), Emidée (fl. before 1800), *Eugène MaCarty (ca. 1821-1881), Doña Maria Martínez (fl. 1850s), *Charles Lucien Lambert (1827/8-1878?), Lucien Léon Guillaume Lambert (1858-1945), José Silvestre White (1836-1920), Hamilton A. Moore (1835-1905), *Edmond Dédé (1827-1901), Eugène Arcade Dédé (1867-19??), *Basile Barès (1845-1902), Claudio José Domingo Brindis de Salas y Garrido (1852-1911) and *Samuel Snaër (1832-1897?) (asterisks indicate New Orleans musicians).

      Also prepared for that lecture was a supplementary list of New Orleans Afro-American musicians intended for future publication. The list of names was formidable! Abstracting information from various sources, birth dates were established and where there was no birth year the period in which the musician flourished.

      Now published those names read as follows: Joseph Armant, Basile Barès (Pèrier), George W. Bernard, Harry Berro, Celestin Bizot, Joseph Boissica, L. R. Brown, Bartholomew Bruno, J. Henri Burch, Mioltide Cabrere, Francisco Carton, Frank Castray(son), Alfonse Caubet (Caubette), R. G. Chester, Aaron Clark, Cora Corbyer (=Corbin?), Sovinah, Curiel, Samuel E. Davis, J. A. Davies, Sylvester Decker, Louise de Mortié, Jean B. Doublet, Joseph Doublet, Maurice J. B., Doublet, Theogene G. B. Doublet, Eugène Dubuclet, Lawrence Dubuclet, Adolph Eurfurth, George H. Fayerweather, Mary Francis, Raymond Galliard, Mme R. Galley, Frank Gaspard, F. Gayanne, Eleanore Giradeau, Eudora Goins, James Gray, Guillaum, L. Guillet, Isabella, George Jetts, Josephe, Lucien Kay, Thomas S. Kelly, Calvin F. Ladd, Alice Laizer, Charles Lambert, Jean (M. Jules) Lambert=Sidney Lambert, Pierre Laprise, Auguste Lecompte, Cora Lewis, J. E. Lewis, Adolphe B. Liautaud, Corilla Macarty, Eugène V. Macarty, Joseph M. Mansion, Louis Martin, Zack Murray, William Nickerson, Jourdan (Jordan) Noble, Noël, Geraldine Nolasco, Jules E. Ogilive, Henry Paul, Frank Peran (Peron?), Amanda Perkins, Sallie Perkins, Charles Poisson, P. Furville Pontic (Pontis), E. A. Populus, Paul Populus, Jean Marie Raymond, W. Donato Reponey (?), Émile Ricard, (blank) Richardson, Anatase Rosalie, C. H. Smith, Eza Smith, Lincoln Smith, Robert Smith, (blank) Smith, Samuel Snaër, Ada Stackhouse, Emma Stackhouse, Emilie Trémé, Felix Trémé, Vinet, Walter Wallace, Arthur P. Williams, and George Williams.

      Having gathered this many names, most of which had not surfaced in other publications (only Trotter’s list includes some of the above), it was realized that New Orleans surely had a greater nineteenth century music history than had been exposed or might never be fully exposed in current writings.

      As discovered in histories of other cities, names are often found without further information – sometimes with and sometimes without racial identification either in newspapers, official writings or other contemporaneous sources. The above list contains the names of musicians who were engaged in music as a profession. Very few were of the usual “in-and out” musicians as the “Signor Cornmeali” type so frequently heralded in “folk” music. Because of the lack of identification complete biographies could not be permitted. On the other hand there was sufficient information which had not surfaced in print and a remedy was in order.

      The bottom-line of earlier presentations rested on the premise that the “educated black music practitioner” had little to do with the development of Afro-American folk music (N.B.) and could therefore be dismissed from such discussions. The educated black music practitioner appeared to be seemingly invisible in the histories of these early periods. One can only attribute a deliberate or misguided attempt to rate one type of practitioner over another when the both have commonly shared concerns – a view still held some three centuries later! By the mid-twentieth century much knowledge of the early educated Créole/black music practitioners in New Orleans was no longer heralded in print.

       One scholar defining the role of the free colored in Louisiana said: “They constituted something of a proto-middle class, attached more to the business of survival than either to tradition or caste loyalty. To the extent that they were excluded from white society and refused to consort with slaves, they preserved themselves as a social group.” Such eliteness certainly had its successes and failures!

      Even if their role was “anomalous” it showed what could be done if a particular society were left alone to develop without encumbrances as did the Moravians in Pennsylvania. Fortunately conditions after the Civil War were partially responsible for its eradication. Never again was New Orleans to experience that kind of analogous development. In fact, no such social experiment of a similar kind ever developed among blacks – nation wide.

      Concerning the “folk” elements at New Orleans, its most prominent music historian, Henry A. Kmen, had challenged the so-called “traditional” statements regarding the roots of “jazz” in New Orleans in his “The Roots of Jazz and the Dance in Place Congo: A Re-Appraisal.” In this work he limited himself, however, attempting to explode the Congo myth and held the belief that the musicality of African type music had long been dismissed before “jazz” was created and that the early traditions had no direct bearing on the later period. Among those writers he could take to task were Frederick Ramsey, Jr. and Charles Edward Smith (Jazzmen, 1939), Robert Goffin (Jazz: From the Congo to the Metropolitan, 1944), Rudi Blesh (Shining Trumpets, 1946), Rex Harris (Jazz, 1952 and subsequent editions to 1956), Barry Ulanov (A History of Jazz in America, 1952), Marshall Stearns (The Story of Jazz, 1956) and Gunther Schuller (Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development, 1968). Lesser figures were ignored because they only echoed the aforementioned writers.

       Nearly 10 years earlier Kmen’s book, The Music of New Orleans (1966) offered much detail about the participation of Créole/blacks into the New Orleans society. His 1972 “re-appraisal” of the fundamental facts should have sparked a re-appraisal of the whole of New Orleans music and especially the role in which Créole/blacks played more than a cursory part. It was a unique development unparalleled in any other city in America. Al Rose in his New Orleans Jazz (1967) could likewise attack the establishment of historians:

      The role played by Storyville in jazz development has been much exaggerated and deliberately misinterpreted by self-elected “historians.”

       In this and subsequent efforts, Rose attempted to alter previous errors concerning the musics of New Orleans, especially the “Storyville” era, 1898-1916. However, the scholarly community was preoccupied and adopted an ostrich-like approach to areas of history in which they were not its precursors. Indeed, much scholarly efforts consisted of picking up a fragment “here and there” – fragments which did not logically fit into a historical sequence.

      This study has zeroed in on the contributions of the (1) slaves, (2) free, (3) “gens de colour” = mulattos of New Orleans and (4) Créole/blacks within the context of New Orleans historicity. These writings also sought to find ties of common interests that were developed in these early years and the degree to which these ties affected later generations.

       Initial tracings reveal that “folk music” of blacks (i.e., unmixed stock) during the century is really never fully or copiously described and when mentioned is often made to appear as an African “only” root. There is no discussion of the French and Latin blends in terms of dialect, melody or rhythm in its music. Thus the historical neglect in tracing music of this unmixed group throughout the entire century of color-conscious New Orleans is without parallel in black music studies. This was a group that had neither the advantage of education, wealth or upward mobility – problems still unsolved in the 20th century!

      Thus is not easy to speak of slave music either in New Orleans or in surrounding areas except fragmentarily. Then, too, slave practices as they existed in Louisiana undoubtedly differed primarily due to the mixture of cultures of their masters. One would hardly expect slaves to adopt customs of the British while under the yolk of bondage of the Spanish, French or otherwise because these Europeans cultures did not interact.

      On the other hand, the music tracings of the Créole (of the lighter hue) appears to have been designed for use within their particular segment of society and which music did not reach the larger black untutored public. Nearly all the Créole/black composers were highly educated and consequently wrote essentially for white or other Créole/black audiences. It is reasonable to say that Créole music is closer to white than to black audiences and, as such, constitutes another phase of Afro-American music which also existed in the “mulatto” school of Brazil.

       The music of the former was not perpetuated by the majority of common dark-skinned folks for their lives rarely intertwined. Dark-skinned Edmond Dédé appears to have been the “rare” exception. In 1987, while researching and visiting New Orleans, it was learned that Al Rose and wife, Diana, were busy preparing a series of Créole Cameos which would present the music of this relatively unheralded body of composers.

       In our survey, the whole of the New Orleans traditions are viewed, not only in that city but in a few surrounding areas. Identification of many new Louisiana musicians has been carefully examined and the blending of “folk” and Créole traditions have been given some perspective.

       Black music among the Arcadians still survives for those interested in conducting another search and many librarians throughout Louisiana are very open to lending a helping hand.

       This volume was commenced by gathering documents pertaining to the Créole composers of “colour.” Additional information was rescued from existing black (and some) white newspaper sources. Then came the most diligent task of discovering the identities of other unheralded music practitioners.

      Dates of birth and birthplace, parents, etc., differed from information found in many scholarly books, journals and the like. It can only be conjectured that many researchers did not go far enough in seeking contemporary sources (especially municipal archives). Therefore corrections in this volume may now be considered highly accurate.

      Unfortunately, this project does not contain oral interviews from families of these music presenters. Their remembrances are certainly needed to round out the biographical sketches.

      One source must be particularly mentioned – that of Dr. Charles Barthelemy Roussève – The Negro in Louisiana (Xavier University Press New Orleans, 1937), which, was received only a short time ago. In this volume he has identified members of the Créole/black society in such a way that their contributions in music is most easily assembled. This is a masterful pioneer work that should have received more recognition earlier than it has.

      In Louisiana our research was conducted primarily at the State Library in Baton Rouge (1973-1975), Louisiana State University and its newspaper microfilms and augmented with materials from the New Orleans Public Library. State files were consulted as much as possible as well as some municipal sources. I am also grateful to the Historic New Orleans Collections, Dr. Alfred E. Lemmon and Miss Florence M. Jumonville, Head Librarian and Mrs. Pamela D. Arceneaux, reference librarian and especially to Dr. Robert Stevenson (UCLA) for guidance on many matters regarding New Orleans Music.

      Tulane Archives, the State Archives at Baton Rouge have also been of invaluable assistance in allowing the copying of music texts which grace these pages. Xavier University (Robert E. Skinner, University Librarian) sent a copy or Dr. Charles Roussève’s book. Louisiana State University lent valued aid especially on Barès and Dédé from the Marcus Christian Collection. I am also grateful to the librarians at Southern University for documents otherwise not easily accessible.

       Sources outside Louisiana could include the Schomburg Collection (New York Public Library), the Moorland-Springarm Collection (Howard University), the E. Azalia Hackley Memorial Collection (Detroit Public Library), the Music Division of the Library of Congress (Washington, D. C.), the Bibliotheque Municipal, Bordeaux, France and the Oporto Conservatory, Oporto, Portugal.

      Then, too, Al Rose and wife, Diana, have held my hand on many an occasion (as well as the Tulane Jazz Archives)! To them this book is dedicated in hopes that their future efforts at promoting music in New Orleans will include some of the lesser known musical activities in that city.

       Lastly, I am grateful to my deceased grandmother, Colleen Lamar (b. Biloxi, Mississippi), graduate of Southern University (1905) and step-grandfather, Mack Lamar (born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana) for additional historical information. To Camille Nickerson, deceased classmate of my grandmother, who shared her knowledge and gave us the only known copy of the Dédé work published in the 1890s by Blackmar. To Harold Dejean for his timely comments in mentioning Professor Nickerson and to the grandson of Basile Barès, Charles Castaing (deceased January, 1987). To the B Sharp Music Club, Mrs. Lillian Dunn Perry née Landry, president for support and additional aid, Mrs. Jessie Dent and Miss Lucille Hutton.

      A preliminary unpublished copy of this work was given to the Tulane Jazz Archives in 1987 and other pertinent documents for its librarians use only. They may now release that materials for study and comparison with this final published version.

                              Arthur R. LaBrew, 1989 (revised 2000)