International Dictionary

By Arthur R. LaBrew

A source book reflecting more than cursory information about musicians of color, black, or posing as white, has been a worthy goal for serious music scholars. As an ethnic group, musicians of color, i. e., boasting African lineage, deserve to have their history written separately just as other ethnic societies have done. Neither the 18th through 20th centuries had supplied a comprehensive document embracing the entire period – antiquity to 1900 – although numerous material has been available but unassembled. Whence Such Curiosity?

As early as 1948 curiosity about black musicians engaged our attention. The annual meeting of the National Association of Negro Musicians, Inc. at Columbus, Ohio brought us in touch with a large cadre of musicians who had developed careers beginning before the turn of the century. Information about their careers was seemingly non-existent.

While attending the Oberlin Conservatory (1948-1952) we were in touch with blacks studying music in an academic manner. However, the question “What will they do with their new skills in the future” did not enter our conscious thought due to interest in our own career.

It was not until we began study in New York, the mecca for black enterprise, that we began to see and hear hundreds of black who, like myself, were forging careers. In attending their performances in churches, Town and Carnegie Hall and in private sessions it was realized that I, too, would be a part of musical society. Slowly but surely, we were introduced to vocalists, instrumentalists, writers and the like who in previous decades had made impressionable contributions designed to elevate the musical eruditeness of the race. Alas, such contributions were hardly noticed in music encyclopedias and dictionaries written to expose new contributors. Our own study in musicology was a typical subject by our teacher, Gustave Reese, the renaissance period. That was what was required for graduation.

Reese, however, was an adjunct teacher at the Manhattan School of Music but he taught these students in his home, a treasure trove of historical books. At one session, we elicited the comment that the black music history was an area, which had escaped the scrutiny of scholars, both in Europe and America and worthy of a greater pursuit.

In paying homage to Reese, I began to accumulate information from as many who opened our eyes to when, where and what were their particular contributions. “Who else was left out”? For those who were deceased “Did their relatives have additional materials, published and unpublished”? Fortunately these questions produced positive results and became part and parcel of our personal interest.

Therefore we began to develop this interest and began to compile files reflecting the contributions of these musicians but it was necessary to establish a foundation from which to build a solid base.

Red flags had appeared for many years. Einstein had noted madrigals which used supposed “negro” dialect. Paul Nettl had written “Traces of the Negroid in the ‘Mauresque’ of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries” However, a large amount of music called negro, negriya, gallego, guineo, congo, calenda, etc, began to appear in renaissance an baroque sources.

Admittedly such red flags deserved some type of music critique and especially those items reflective of the presence of black people. Another study titled “The First Appearance of the Negroes in History” by Dr. Hermann Junker provided another part of our initial thrust. Dr. Junker explains that the necessity of throwing some light on the history of Blacks [N. B. the capitalization of the word] from the Egyptological side needed no justification because Egypt was a part of Africa and had the oldest history accessible (at that time). Relying primarily on excavated materials his attempt was admirable. What he learned was that evidence of Blacks was frequently discovered among the many excavated artifacts in different regions. At page 128, fn.2 he quotes from Wreszinski’s Atlas zur altaegyptischen Kulturgeschichte, Pl. 23, of the lower line of soldiers: “On the right are marching seven Negroes, the first two of which are carrying trumpets (?), while the five others are armed with throwing-sticks” to which Junker disagrees and urged comparison with real contemporary representations in the tomb of Sebekhotpe, ‘Abd el-Kurneh 64, Pl. 56 in the Wreszinski report. Thus these two, if proven to be Negroes would fall in our section of Anonymous participants. His report ended with: “The great victories of the New Kingdom brought Egypt, at about 1500 B.C., for the first time in direct contact with the Blacks, whose habitat is to be sought south of the Fourth Cataract. At the same time we meet them on the coast of Somâliland, at about the same latitude. The territory of the Negroes proper thus extended at that time almost exactly as far as at present, or only a little further northward.”

As early as 1912 the following suggested a partial rationale for this historical dilemma of omission: In assigning places in history to athletes, actors and musical performers, we must not mistake transient popularity for permanent fame. An athlete, actor and musical virtuoso is only applauded while he is in the limelight; when he retires he is soon forgotten and interest centers in a new star . . . That is the fate of a musical entertainer . . . I do not know whether getting applause as an entertainer is in reality breaking down race prejudice and crossing the color line . . . Even in slavery days the darkey who could play monkey, who could sing and dance or pick the banjo and play the fiddle, was popular with his master. While musical and artistic performers do break down the barrier between the races, we cannot exactly call them–picturesque and entertaining as they are–great figures in history, dynamic forces in human progress.

Although pertaining to other fields of endeavor this partial truism has been sanctioned throughout the history of mankind with certain prominent figures heralded as “geniuses” of the highest rank – but then genius can only be defined in relationship to mediocrity. This observation should certainly occupy the thought of today’s musicians desirous of entering the field of music who should be made aware that there are always choices to be made regarding that which is transient against that which is permanent. In 1936 Maude Cuney-Hare (1874-1936)attempted to tackle the difficult periods with proven documentation and she, like her predecessors, wisely limited herself to known published materials or to information which she had personally witnessed. Co-incidentally, both Hare and Trotter (1844-1892), independent researchers, were without the ultimate in “scholastic” credentials.

The 20th century has been most productive in attempting to historically research the lives of musicians of color of previous generations as well as introducing newer participants for consideration. In countries outside the United States, non ethnic scholars have often carried on the task of identifying source material for the study of musicians of color. Then, too, within the confines of the United States, other non ethnic scholars have often left an indelible impact upon many aspects of scholarship pertaining to musicians of color and their contributions are recognized.

However, some writings emit a pungent scent and often view the contributions from this ethnic class of musicians through rose colored glasses. As witnessed in the histories of European countries, the contributions of musicians are terraced and only those at the apex are given consideration as the greatest music contributors. Thus students of general music history are not alerted to a plectra of ancillary musicians and materials omitted solely because researchers of the first rank have been unable to bear the expense of so great a project. Such failings have been detailed in our many writings on musicians of color which refute the impression that only composers or performers of the “first rank” should carry the weight for an entire race. This fact is easily confirmed by looking through any library catalog for such subjects as black music teachers, music critics, music entrepreneurs, music inventors, etc. Within the true African music ethic all musicians are viewed as contributors of materials whether original or arranged. Admittedly, almost no single published source book has permitted a look at this complex picture and thus the value of “lesser lights” has been severely compromised. When academia suggests that lesser acknowledged contributors and their contributions are but “shadows” in moments in history it asseverates that their existence is without merit. Thus academia’s failure translates into “dissing” those most responsible for shouldering the careers of promising artists.

“Divide and conquer” may be a convenient method to record history but, in reality, re-assembles fragments and glues them to a common frame – often Frankenstein-like in its finality.

In this volume, an attempt has been made to furnish the reader with as many leads as possible for future research. With new writings being assembled and published in greater quantity than in previous years, our understanding of the supportive role played by musicians of color throughout the world may be brought into sharper focus.

We are pleased that we can now offer a tool to some students of music history. In developing this document, our efforts were not guided by previous models therefore new concepts had to be formulated before they could be implemented. For example, in noting black musicians in the American armed forces, it was thought more prudent to list them together rather than as individual entries unless there was additional information which necessitated a separate entry.

Black contributors throughout world history was an important subject but alas, the radar screen was raised and their names and careers seemingly vanished! The aristocracy which employed blacks as servants would allow painting which often showed a young black servicing such royalty but there ends their life story. They simply disappeared!

In refusing to recognize this dictum, it was hoped that future examination of existing records of these aristocratic dynasties might give additional reference especially to any possible black communities in which these transposed blacks might have lived and how did their musical sensibilities relate not only to their particular group but to the entire music community. Some answers have been revealed but still lacking is the subject of their contributions to fine arts. Therefore it is hoped that more and more hidden details will reveal themselves in the future.

Today, we are receiving information via the reasoning of griots – story telling, i. e., fiction based on fact often stretched for a specific purpose. But events preparatory to the existence of the fact are seemingly lost. For example, the song “Home, Sweet Home” may seem like just another ditty, today but at the time of its creation when many were displaced by slavery, indenture or even immigration, the mention of “Home” brought tears to its listeners. In modern society, sentimentality is not as cherished as in previous years. Therefore the suppression of one of the most fundamental emotions has produced a partially neurotic society. We do not subscribe to such things which cannot evoke a positive and uplifting response. Our presentation rescues all segments of music presenters of color. Whether or not one agrees with this approach is their problem not that of the author. The validity of the information sterilizes their ignorance! The Procedure Biography is a difficult area in which to pursue exacting research. Some writers prefer a method that relates to the “what has he/she done theory” that has been recorded either in print or some other means thus admitting musicians most often in published notices but, in reality, played a miniscule part in the total scheme of things. This method also produces a skeleton outline of the personality and which summaries fail to give qualitative substance – therein lies an even greater tragedy.

Thus little of the inner personality of the musician is unrecorded and readers are often confused in their judgments of their particular worth. We, too, cannot yet fill in the inner personalities of the many musicians mentioned in these volumes, however, future researchers will be aided by carefully exploring the era in which the musician lived, his triumphs, failures and adversarial efforts in music making.

Our first approach utilized the ten-year American censuses which were first randomly perused by cities for “black/mulatto/Negro” persons identifiable as “musicians” with some African heritage. After gathering that data a recheck of earlier censuses was made to confirm the veracity of the former and to secure other genealogical data. In the matter of those known to be musicians, but not designated as such in the censuses, it was necessary to do a third check to see if birth and other data could be paired. This was especially necessary when the designation “musician” was only found in a particular source.

Lastly, information retrieved from pre-existing biographical materials (such as newspaper accounts) needed to be rechecked. The enormous amount of time needed to do this search prevents this publication from being complete and, hopefully, will be continued by future researchers sifting through other kinds of data ranging from court, criminal, land, tax, voting, birth, christening and death records, etc.

In this initial effort, musicians who acted in consort are entered without the follow up of detailed biographical data. This was especially noted where bands and orchestral personnel were reported in various regions but the necessary time to research each participant could not be easily undertaken. Therefore they are usually grouped together.

Censuses for some countries have been difficult to secure. In the Latin countries such places as Cuba need better exploration during the 19th century. Contrastingly, materials in the 1910 census of Puerto Rico marked “N” [=negro, black] or mulatto are used since the 1920 census was altered for political purposes. In America, the earliest records, birth and baptism dates of black musicians through church records were not easily available. Then, too, other pertinent sources have not preserved the necessary documents for a complete record. Secondary sources have been used but only as a point of reference. In instances where musicians deliberately changed their names the process became difficult. During the enslavement period, run-away slaves changed their names for obvious reasons. One need not be surprised if the same holds true in many present day instances. Some early notices provided information which black travelers brought from experiences in different countries or their satellites. This led to our inclusion of blacks from other areas in the world from which another perspective could be included. Blacks who traveled (especially as ship sailors or indented servants) surely brought back some of their experiences. Although a minute amount of such literature has been retrieved, the oral tradition presupposes that this was one of the means by which blacks became aware of black music identities in other cultures.

The amount of information secured in this volume represents only a fragment of a subject that deserves to be more rigorously investigated.

The future of black music research depends upon many diverse factors including the creation of a cadre of scholars committed to rediscovering and utilizing untapped sources. More important, however, will be their rediscovery and exposition of musical concerns within the framework of the period in which the musician lived–with and without its flaws. Information without documentation should be avoided!

In this presentation original prepared biographies were not “reinvented” or regurgitated. However, admitting new and particular aspects of a musician’s career does add additional coloration to an existing biography but does not, in itself, invalidate the original source. Conclusions:

The first object was to secure a definition, which applies to “black music.” The simplistic definition used by some – “all music written or performed by black composers” – fails to take into consideration where the musician was born and the influence his environment imposed on his creativity. Color may identify the person but certainly does not define his music or his style.

By analyzing styles, one might arrive at a better definition of the musician’s involvement which may include ethnic, non-ethnic, original and burlesque efforts. Ethnic pertains to music prepared for the consumption of the masses employing ethnic artifices. Non-ethnic defines music prepared the consumption of an “elite” society and generally employs artifices more nationalistic in character. 3. Original music is that prepared for personal consumption with or without regard for ethnic or non-ethnic styles. 4. Burlesque is music prepared in imitation of any ethnic musics.

Each category has its own adherents, both black and white. However, ethnic music which can be easily be burlesqued (item 4) has apparently received more treatment than items 2/3.

The materials in this study should dispel forever the generalization that all blacks enjoy and perform the same kinds of music – or that all blacks are able to sing black or perform music – or that all black composers should write in only black music styles. There are no borders in defining materials which black musicians have used in developing their art. Lastly, those writers who carelessly “write out” [“proscribe” in nineteenth century terminology] musicians who elect not to use boundaries prescribed by the so-called “keepers of the keys” do an immense disservice to future generations of musicians. Music evolution should stand on its own merit!

In this Dictionary, most references to “musicians of color” of New Orleans have been detailed in Afro-American Music Review Vol. 1 No. 2 (1984).

In making our information available (our cataloging was begun during a tenure at the District of Columbia Teachers College, 1970-1972) we were especially aided with materials from the Zelma Watson George catalog at Howard University. The lists of most works were searched at the Library of Congress as time would permit. Titles of other projected works were taken from cover sheets and other information on the music itself. Therefore many items appear without a publication date (see especially under Justin Holland). Likewise, the copyright number has often been omitted to save publication space.

Then, too, the majority of works were found only by personally examining the copyrights not in the general collection of the Music Division of the Library of Congress then located at the copyright repository at Suitland, Maryland. This was an extremely tedious and slow process in the earlier years. Fortunately, the Music Division has filmed this material dating from 1870 to 1890 and a catalog prepared for quick references. As far as we know, these catalogs are available for purchase. Music scholars certainly have much homework to do in music cataloging and disseminating this information than has been possible in earlier years.

This Dictionary of historic black musicians does not interpret the music and seeks little aesthetic pronouncements. It is strictly confined to original source materials or, in instances where extensive biographical writings exist, to minimally extract pertinent historical data.

Where interpretive material already exists by or about musicians, it has not been generally noted or listed. Secondary interpretations by others may or may not be mentioned unless they are in severe disagreement with known facts.

We have used the musicological approach to unmask [N. B.] the history behind the history of Afro-American musicians and their musics. Summaries or completely new articles were re-written or re-worded when additional materials rendered the old versions completely obsolete (á la Grove, 1909 et alia). Thus some biographies occupy more than normal space in our work.

Biographies of pre-eminent Afro-American musicians are usually not given much space unless corrective or supplementary tissue is supplied. Such original materials are generally available in most libraries.

Summaries of events in a musician’s life usually found in encyclopedic works or extended articles often neglect the particulars and are unusable because of their restrictiveness.

Today, we are witnessing many new publications attempting to expose various elements of the culture of blacks. Among these attempts, “Spirituals” are now given the “bow-tie” and formal dress treatment thus losing much of the soul-searching emotional feel. To the older generations such exposure is not welcomed, however, the new writers appear not to have a full grasp of situations and overviews of previous generations of black culture. Writers in this troublesome field of research should be aware that the logic of new generations does not supercede the logic of previous ones and their conclusions may be easily refuted by persons having their own personal data.

Among other such citings are many new hymnals using melodies and texts arrangements of many older songs. Often, complete verses are omitted, the music is modified, the text is changed (from the original) and unwelcomed orchestra-like accompaniments of electronic equipment serve as excessive baggage in places where simplicity would be more appropriate! Sophistication is not always a sign of progress! Hymns, as a part of the music liturgy, are generally used in congregational settings. Complex hymn writings obliterate both its purpose and narrative. Ornate hymn writing is best left for the more highly trained choral groups. Unadorned hymns often challenge the singer/singers.

In determining which countries to include in this volume, we have let ourselves roam freely and when such information was at hand it was introduced. Unfortunately every country where blacks resided and made musical contributions is yet beyond our scope, viz. Paraguay. The last question involves new discoveries of America’s past. Should we be adding more substantive information or rely only on what we already know? If additions may be welcomed then the following item was recently discovered of American Indians and is reported since it gives scope to some of the tonal attributes of that period and to which were often exposed. We could find no mention of this example in any current American dictionary. It is found in L’Histoire du Nouveau Monde ou Description Des Indes Occidentales (Iean De Laet, d’Aneurs.) Pub. A. Leyde, Chez Bonaventure & Abraham Elseuirs, Imprimes ordinaires de l’université (I( I(( xl and reads” Ils ne sont du tout ignorans des ars mechaniques, cas ils taillent en bosse des images á la grosse mode, non pas pourtant les honorer comme idoles. Ils recreent leurs banquets ou festes qu’ils noniment Tabagia, de certaines chansons aussi bien que les autres Sauuages, & au ton d’icelles ils donnent d pié conre terre, ou bien ils salutent; leurs Magiciens s’en serunt aussi. Lescarbot François en a exprimé quelquesumes en musique, l’une desquelles nous adiousterous ici. Le chanson achenee, tout les autres sespondent He é é é. C’est chose esmerueillable d’où leur est venu ce mot Alleluya, leques Lescarbot asseure avoir plusieurs fois parfaitement ouy prononcer, ie m’en rapporte à c qui en est. Voila ce que nous auions à dire des Sauuages, maintenant nous poursuivrons le reste de la Continente.

Such telling evidence easily demonstrates the necessity of continuing research among the new arrivals in early America. In using source materials we have tried to give the reader sources which contain additional bibliographical entries that may be unknown or unavailable to them. The Different Heritages

The subject matter of “musicians of color” has not been an easy task to assemble. Indeed, the history of people of color in general literature has often been defined only in relationship to the events within the dominant culture. The sagacious scholar should be able to pinpoint the various periods in which these music participants lived and worked within those current venues.

For example, the writings of antiquity provide glimpses of musicians (black) of color but only as they relate to that society. These individual expressions cannot be made to appear as a legitimate experience of the entire tribe or race from which that black person was taken. Antiquity has provided us only with a general outlook concerning black musical styles and very little of their individual life style or even their names (see Anonymous).

Likewise, the period from the 10th to 15th centuries appears to be a better starting point for learning of the music experience of blacks although often perceived with cultural biases. During this disporadic period, blacks were transported from their native surroundings and forced to accept the identities within the new society. Where this has occurred, the observations by writers, and more important by watchful musicians, have resulted in some notable discoveries. Nowhere is this more conspicuous than in the Italian, Spanish and Portuguese countries and their satellites which have identified such African type genres [=black] as villancico, negros, moriscos and other such nomenclature.

Italy has discerned the music practices of its blacks and its composers have written of their onomatopoeic uttering. What is more important, however, is that some compositions give some indication of their rhythmic and rhyming techniques. There are many such extant examples in madrigal literature but there has not been a separate study of blacks!

Portugal has provided us with at least one early important musician of color, Vicente Lusitano [see further in text] who was active during the period of the 1500s. His activities were also witnessed in Italy and possibly Germany. However, this is still a difficult period because notices of music of or by blacks in many lesser regions have been unfulfilled. One example is in China which imported blacks during the 7th to 15th century [see Item Anonymous 618-907 A. D.]. Another is in Germany (see Anonymous 1800s) recent information has augmented our knowledge of drummers and musicians from that country (see Gustav Albrecht Sabac el Cher, 1868-1934 and Elo Wilhelm Sambo aka Josef Mambo, b. 1885-1933). Again no separate study enhances any tradition.

On the other hand, the importation of blacks to the Latin American countries has provided one of the best examples in exposing the music of both the slave and free black musicians, especially Brazil whose ties with Portugal are often highlighted in many publications.

One of the leading experts, Francisco Curt Lange devoted his time and expertise in tracing eighteenth-century black musicians of Ouro Prêto Brazil. Their music rarely contains easily visible ethnic traits. The slave population of the Municipality of Vila Rica to 1823 taken from Donald Ramos was: The slave origins have been identified as follows in 1738 (total 7524):

However, lacking is substantive information about the slave music practices. Although Ramos does identify the batuques (1726 and again in 1754) but in general little else has been identified.

Ramos also notes the origins of the Lay Brotherhoods of Vila Rica: Brotherhood to 1726 Date Parish Membership N. S. do Rosário 1719 Antônio Dias Black N. S. da Conceição 1712 Pilar Mulatto N. S. do Rosário 1715 Pilar Black 1726-1752 N. S. da Boa Morte 1736 Antônio Dias Mulattoes N. S. da Terço 1736 Antônio Dias Integrated N. S. da Mercês e Perdões 1743 Antônio Dias Black N. S. das Mercês 1740 Pilar Black (Creole) 1752-1822 Arciconfraria do Cordão 1760 Pilar Mulatto São Francisco de Paulo 1780 Pilar Mulatto Santa Cecilia 1816 Pilar Musicians (Mulatto)

The brotherhoods were eventually responsible for the phenomenal growth of music under the aegis of the Catholic Church. Nonetheless the relationship between the slave and free black in the acculturation process of Vila Rica and other Brazilian satellites still needs to be more sharply defined.

Lange’s exposition of the musical activities of the “free” blacks has been masterful but much remains regarding that part of the population that was more ethnically oriented.

Contrastingly, the investigation of the earliest black music practices of the United States has been one of the last important frontiers to be scientifically investigated. For example, the Dutch settlements in New Amsterdam a.k.a. New York, were never scrutinized for black musicians. Stereotypes have replaced scientific evidence. Music and musicians have often been identified through the medium of American fiction and non-fiction literature and many identities “invented.” These “identities” have no real backgrounds. Then, too, imaginary dating of specific events was often substituted for the lack of exact methodology – the ethno-musicological approach. Throughout our investigations concerning the origins of black music in American studies, it became apparent that positive identification and investigation of black participants were seemingly neglected areas.

Totally involved in this process were scholars completely divorced from the black society but eager to capitalize upon a “supposed” vacuum of information. For example the title of a very recently received book Black Africans in Renaissance Europe, attracted our attention only because of the use of the word “renaissance” reflective a rebirth in the fine arts in which period we earned out degree on the musical subject of “The St. Matthew Passion of Metre Jan, maestro di cappella to Hercules II, duke of Ferrara.”

It was hoped that information in that volume would give more enlightenment on the subject of both blacks and their participation in the fine arts. However, according to the introduction a conference was arranged at St. Peter’s College, Oxford in September 2001 with 18 speakers. The range of disciplines were 3 “ordinary” historians, 1 economic historian, 1 church historian and 2 cultural historian, etc. Sadly we could not note any “music” historian! Since music was one of the primary arts during the renaissance period, there should have been some representative from that discipline, especially since our professor and hundred of others had been working for years in the same area. Unfortunately this work does not transcend other works in rediscovering the identities of artistic blacks although traces of their influence in the works of many renaissance composers and artists have been heralded. In general this work reflected on such subjects as stereotyping, conceptualizing black skin (in England) or the inclusion of black women in the court of Isabella d’Este or slaves in the Lisbon court of Catherine of Austria. In the introduction entitled “The black presence in Renaissance Europe” it is reported as an area “greatly overlooked” in scholastic studies. We would have preferred the word “under researched” (the half empty of half full theory). The great number of blacks who were brought to the European continent portends that there is sufficient documentation available to discuss who they were and how did they survive in a new land. Although nearly all were slaves, the fact that they were mentioned in music and described in paintings forecasts speculative material exists about them and their lives. Aiding them were libraries which purchased books, often faulty and repetitious, using as an excuse “something is better than nothing.” Unremorseful, they aided and abetted the commercial efforts of American (and some European) publishing houses long noted for exploiting a gullible public by providing incomplete and often false materials. Also to blame are both black and white scholars (and non-scholars alike) with little expertise in research techniques but eager to become major players in developing a black aesthetic in scholarship activities. Instead of cultivating an atmosphere for a cadre of devoted scholars (not of the peek-a-boo mold) of proven eminence to “assist” in rediscovering, redefining, editing and developing materials pertaining to the black musical experience, they developed only enough materials to assist in self aggrandizement. Most have attempted to substitute 20th century “surmisings” for 18th and 19th century absolutes.

For example, “Jim Crow” and “Ragtime” are two of the most prominent areas that contain many coon-type images on music sheet covers. From such rag-time examples one might get the impression that all blacks did the cakewalk, the “Pas-Ma-La,” ad infinitum. Perhaps many did participate but the exemplars appear to be but exploitations of a miniscule part of the black music scene. One notes the absence of real faces on the covers suggesting that the publishers were either unable or may have been inhibited in securing real life persons. Therefore they manufactured countless covers depicting the same scene over and over. The medium finally became over saturated and simply dissipated! Ethnicity and Genealogy Considered

The best sources for any genealogical information are birth and baptismal records whenever and wherever available. For example the early records of the Dutch churches in New Amsterdam=New York yield information about the 1630-1700 period. Revisiting material in Canadian records also resulted in surprises! However, in lieu of the foregoing, the next best materials in America appear to be the United States censuses supplemented with information from city directories, court, institutional and notarial records. The question “Why seek out United State Censuses” for material of value is easily answered in genealogical circles. However, for many blacks, the dates given in these censuses vary for many reasons: a. most did not have access to vital records b. those born during the slavery period often had to guess at their exact birth or even their lineage c. some changed their birth year and name during the slavery period to escape future identification from would-be captors. d. women (and some men) often changed their birth dates so as not to appear to be older than their husbands The censuses are therefore one of the more consistent sources to record the “occupations” [N. B.] of its inhabitants. City directories are another source enabling one to fill in data during each decade of the census returns. For many of these hitherto unmentioned musicians who worked in the music field during the 19th century, their commitment to music endeavors surpassed the efforts of transient musicians who after making a few bucks and some notoriety left the field of music without further venerating the profession. In these censuses, one may formulate a proven opinion and statistically prove the totality of the black commitment to professionalism. It is as an economic reality that this important aspect in the study of black music and musicians be further pursued.

The use of censuses (and other official records) provided an opportunity to promote a more exact knowledge of the travails of these musicians and especially their family relationships. For example the musician who was noted at Falmouth, England, Emidée, has never been fully described except through the account of James Silk Buckingham. However, because more sophisticated technology exists today than some twenty-five years ago when our investigations began, more original sources have become more accessible.

Thus, in Buckingham’s memoirs it is revealed that Emidée [Emidy] was born in Guinea and sold into slavery by the Portuguese and subsequently taken to the Brazils (Latin America). His master or owner then took him to Lisbon and after realizing the boy’s musical potential supplied him with a teacher. Emidée became proficient enough to perform in the second violin section of the opera orchestra. The ship captain, Sir Edward Pellow or Pellew, needing a good violinist to play for the amusement of his crew of the Indefatigable, visited the opera house and upon hearing the young man arranged for his abduction. Thus Emidée’s enslavement interrupted his academic career. It was only upon Pellow’s appointment to the command of a line-of battle ship, L’Impetueur, was he let ashore at Falmouth where he remained, until his death.

At Falmouth Emidée reentered the concert life and became noted as a teacher of music. In addition he was reportedly the leader of the orchestra of the Harmonic Society of Falmouth. Buckingham secured Emidée as a teacher prior to 1807 at which time Buckingham left Falmouth for London. He submitted some of Emidée’s pieces (quartets, quintets, and symphonies for full orchestra) to Mr. Salomon, one of the principal leaders of concerts at Hanover Square Rooms. Emidée’s quartet, quintet and 2 symphonies were tried and approved. Salomon wanted to bring the black musician to London but this was objected to because “his colour would be so much against him, that there would be a great risk of failure.” However, a private subscription was taken up and sent to Emidée at Falmouth. Thus ends the Buckingham account. From other sources new materials can now be added. We learn that Emidée’s [now Anglicized to Emedy or Emidy] first name was Joseph (d. April 24, 1835) and married Jennifer [Jane] Hutchins (d. January 24, 1842 in Truro) 16 Sept 1802 at Falmouth. They had six children: 1. Joseph (b. July 23, 1803 - christened 14 August 1803) 2. Thomas H. (b. July 6 1805 - christened 8 December 1805) 3. James (b. July 13, 1807 - christened 11 March 1808) 4. Cecilia (b. Oct 21, 1809 - christened 10 June 1810) 5. Benjamin (b. June 24, 1812 - christened 31 July 1812 – died Aug 3, 1812) 6. Richard (d. 1837) Joseph, the eldest, moved to Kenwyn and married a woman known as Jane Rose. They had a set of male twins and one female daughter: 1. William (christened 25 December 1829); married one Jane Reed and their daughter Eliza, born 10 January 1846 at Kenwyn was christened on 8 February 1846 at Thuro. 2. Richard (christened 25 December 1829) married one Susan and there were two twin-girls: Clara and Jane, christened 3 October 1862 at Thuro. 3. Eliza Rose (christened 3 January 1830) It is the family of Thomas, the second son of Emidy whose family attracts attention in American black music studies. He married one Margaret Rose and lived at Kenwyn and sired six children: 1. Cecelia (christened 1 January 1832) 2. Francis Antonio (christened 1 January 1832) 3. Eliza (christened 4 October 1835) 4. Joseph Antonio (christened 4 October 1835)* 5. Richard Samuel (christened 1 August 1837)* 6. William James (christened 3 January 1841)* In our material on “black minstrels,” we have noted the presence of James and Richard Emidy. Presumably they are Richard Samuel and William James. However, at the time of Richard’s death in Chicago, November 13, 1885, only his brother J. A. is cited as living in Woonsocket, Rhode Island. Upon examination of the census records of 1880 we do find Joseph A. age 45 musician born in England and is listed as “white.” His age matches that found in the church records at Kenwyn. In his home are Eliza A., age 42 and daughter Julia, 12. Meanwhile Richard’s biography may now be corrected to read born in Kenwyn. His birth is probably correct, June 16, 1837 since he was christened nearly two months later.

Lacking is better documentation on whether William James or Joseph Antonio performed in the various minstrel troupes of that period perhaps masquerading as “slaves of the sunny south.” James [William?] is always given but little else surfaces about him after his brother’s death. Later genealogical records fail to accurately define the descendents of the original Emidée (new information in biographical section). Among the many biographies are musicians whose ancestry admits “negroid” genes. Much too often, these families have so covered their ancestral genealogies that unmasking the evidence is nearly impossible. Reasons for faking their identities lies in the social arena which readily accepted genius if white but looked askew is there were traces of black blood [viz. the Lambert family of New Orleans].

In previous years it has been made to appear that fair-skinned blacks were most representative of a greater intelligence. Their darker-skinned brothers of similar intelligence have had to surmount this concept and prove the falsity of the “fair-skinned theory.” Where possible, we have attempted to bridge this area which also admits black musicians with vertilogo.

We begin our chronological listing by noting anonymous black known to have been involved in music making. Such strands of activity are treated as a separate category in hopes that new information may surface. Embellishing our text are items of iconographical interest. Pictures and other ephemera were also thought important enough to be included. Scholars who have materials of their own may probably challenge the faults in this presentation. It is important to know that what we have noted has been personally viewed by this writer. Materials to which we have not actually viewed are therefore not included. However, to those who attempted to aid in this primary work, we express our most sincere gratitude.

Arthur R. LaBrew 1998-2007